Buddhism and pessimism
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Buddhism and pessimism
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[post_content] => Practice Passage (Question 1-6)
*This passage is the property of Khan Academy and has been reformatted into an AAMC-style interface in their entirety by MedLife Mastery. MedLife Mastery does not endorse and is not an affiliate of Khan Academy.
In the present essay, I understand philosophy as an “immanent practice,” which is found in the work of the French philosopher Gilles Deleuze. This practice is contrary to a philosophy that aims at something transcendental – beyond or above life. “[T]hought is creation, not will to truth,” writes Deleuze.
Seen in this light, Buddhism is not a philosophy, in the sense that it operates with trans-empirical states of being: the divine or a God. A Buddhist is one who has woken up or who experiences an enlightened consciousness. The thinking and practices in Buddhism, therefore, are controlled by will to truth, i.e., by the demands of this “God” or the reality of an “enlightened consciousness.” On the other hand, a pessimist claims that suffering is the “immediate object of our life … evil is precisely that which is positive,” as philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer writes. He continues, “… all happiness and satisfaction is negative, that is, the mere elimination of a desire and the ending of a pain.” Happiness is the absence of the positive element, i.e., pain. Thus, pessimism corresponds with Buddhism, since the latter also claims that life is suffering.
The tragedy is where the pessimist and the Buddhist part. The Buddhist believes that one can find happiness if one follows the teaching of the Buddha; the pessimist does not share such a belief. However, regardless of the similarities and differences, I question the underlying premises of both Buddhism and pessimism: whether all human beings really seek a predefined meaning; whether the main object of life really is suffering per se – and, if so, whether this suffering might be overcome by referring to a higher form of reality. For a simple example, why should the feeling of pain and suffering be more authentic than the feelings of joy and happiness? The problem is metaphysical. My thesis is that a religion (or a rigid pessimistic philosophy), in general, is less receptive, less open; that it encourages less vulnerability and awareness, because of its embedded “will to truth.” Philosopher Deleuze would say, “We write only at the frontiers of our knowledge, at the border which separates our knowledge from our ignorance and transforms the one into the other.” In other words, philosophy as presented here becomes an a posteriori test of what is in the midst of coming into being.
An immanent philosophy as presented here, therefore, is open to what – at the present moment – is outside our experience or system of knowledge. It questions its ignorance in order to know more, but it does not claim that another world exists before it encounters this world. “By and large, it is painful to think,” says philosopher Arne Næss, which is not the same as saying that life is painful per se. It is painful to be confronted with one’s ignorance. It is, therefore, through questioning that one moves beyond pessimism and Buddhism and becomes a philosopher. The philosophical creation begins with inventing a problem. This questioning is missing in pessimism and Buddhism, because both apparently know what is true and not true. A true detective does not exclude anything; he remains open to whatever. He questions what he does not know. Thus, the invention of a problem activates the creation of new solutions. The mystery is only a mystery due to one’s ignorance. The philosopher (or true detective) questions his or her ignorance.
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[question] => Which of the following scenarios would the author say is LEAST similar to engaging in “immanent practice” as discussed in paragraph 1? An individual who:
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 4
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
The author’s definition of immanent practice is two-fold. First, an immanent practice does not operate with “trans-empirical states of being” (paragraph 2). Second, an immanent practice is being open to what is “outside our experience or system of knowledge” (paragraph 4). Thus, an immanent practice is empirical (rather than spiritual or transcendental) and does not accept absolute dogma or fixed belief systems. The question asks you to choose a scenario that is LEAST similar to the author’s definition of an immanent practice. You should therefore look for a scenario that lacks both these qualities and thus involves both closed belief systems and transcendental views. A staunch atheist who believes in science (option 1) may or may not have a closed belief system, but does not believe in god or some higher form of enlightenment. The person who believes that a vegetarian lifestyle is the only way to serve humanity (option 2) has a closed belief system, but again does not necessarily believe in trans-empirical states of being. Voting for a political party (option 3) is a behavior that may or may not reflect any beliefs at all, let alone trans-empirical beliefs. Religious prayer (option 4) is a specific and spiritual practice with trans-empirical characteristics, and viewing it as the only method is a closed-belief system.
Option 4 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
(
[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. believes in science and self-identifies as a staunch atheist.
)
[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. views a vegetarian lifestyle as the only way to serve humanity.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. votes for the same political party regardless of the platform.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. views religious prayer as the only way to cleanse the mind, body, and higher spirit.
)
)
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[1] => Array
(
[quiz_unique_key] => 3873426850
[question] => Which of the following is a weakness in the author’s argument?
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 4
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question, which means that it directs your attention to an argument, claim, or theme presented in the passage, and tests your ability to analyze and evaluate the strength of evidentiary relationships among component parts of an argument.
In paragraph 4, the author writes that immanent practice “is open to what – at the present moment – is outside our experience or system of knowledge.” While the author criticizes Buddhism and pessimism as being closed belief systems with predefined principles, at the same time the author holds that immanent practice is closed to ideas of trans-empiricism. In paragraph 1 the author writes that immanent practice “is contrary to a philosophy that aims at something transcendental”, and in paragraph 2 writes that when immanent practice is seen in this light, “Buddhism is not a philosophy, in the sense that it operates with trans-empirical states of being: the divine or a God.” Thus, immanent practice does not embrace the possibility that there are truths that are unknowable or beyond empirical reach. This feature in itself makes it a closed belief system, in contradiction to the requirement that it be “open” (option 4). The whole point of paragraph 3 is to draw attention to how Buddhism and pessimism differ (option 1), and to question their assumptions (option 2).. Whether religion makes people happy (option 3) is irrelevant to the author’s argument. Happiness and suffering are discussed in how religions view these states, which is a distinct issue from any effects these views have on those states.
Option 4 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. The author presumes that Buddhism and pessimism are identical.
)
[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. The author does not question the assumptions of Buddhism.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. The author does not consider whether religion makes people happy.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. The author presents a definition of “Immanent Practice” that is self-contradictory.
)
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[2] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 83407773
[question] => In paragraph 4, the author quotes philosopher Arne Næss in order to:
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 1
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question, which means that it directs your attention to an argument, claim, or theme presented in the passage, and tests your ability to analyze and evaluate the strength of evidentiary relationships among component parts of an argument.
The quote in paragraph 4 the question refers to reads, “By and large, it is painful to think.” The author uses the quote to introduce a new philosophy while also casting suffering in a new light. Instead of adhering to the Buddhist and pessimistic view that suffering is a fundamental part of life, the author describes suffering as the experience of being “confronted with one’s ignorance” (paragraph 4). Suffering is characterized as a learning process that is generated through asking difficult questions remaining “open to whatever.” The main function of paragraph 4 is not to explain why Buddhism and pessimism view suffering as they do (option 2), but to offer what the author believes is an alternative point of view (option 1). The third option suggests that the author thinks suffering is viewed the same across perspectives, which is not true because the author believes that Buddhism and pessimism lack the questioning aspect that this new perspective offers (paragraph 4). Finally the author is advocating for immanent philosophy, not criticizing it (option 4).
Option 1 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. present an alternative perspective on human suffering.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. explain why Buddhists and pessimists are so focused on suffering as a way of life.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. illustrate how suffering is viewed similarly across many different philosophies.
)
[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. expose a contradiction in the tenets of immanent philosophy.
)
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[quiz_unique_key] => 872728905
[question] => Which of the following statements best expresses the passage author’s personal belief system? A true philosopher should:
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 2
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Foundations of Comprehension” question which is asking you to recognize an accurate paraphrase or summary of the central theme or of particular statements in the passage, or to interpret word choices made by the author.
In paragraph 2, the author quotes philosopher Deleuze in saying, “We write only at the frontiers of our knowledge, at the border which separates our knowledge from our ignorance,” and asserts that there is a body of knowledge within which one operates but does not take as absolute. The author describes philosophy as an “a posteriori test of what is in the midst of coming into being,” meaning as a body of knowledge that comes into being from observations. Thus, the author does not argue that one should always operate within a framework of uncertainty (option 1), nor that reality is never as it appears (option 3). Rather, the author suggests that one should build personal knowledge through direct observation and by being open to new ways of thinking (option 2). In paragraph 3 the author asks, “why should the feeling of pain and suffering be more authentic than the feelings of joy and happiness? The problem is metaphysical.” However, this is merely a rhetorical question, challenging the premise of both Buddhism and pessimism. The view that happiness and suffering are equally authentic (option 4) is presented as a rhetorical question, rather than as the author’s actual belief.
Option 2 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. operate within a framework that nothing is known or certain.
)
[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. reject absolutisms and remain open.
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[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. accept that reality is not always as it appears.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. view happiness and suffering as equally authentic.
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[4] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => Which of the following scenarios would the author say is LEAST similar to engaging in “immanent practice” as discussed in paragraph 1? An individual who:
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 2
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
The author’s definition of immanent practice is two-fold. First, an immanent practice does not operate with “trans-empirical states of being” (paragraph 2). Second, an immanent practice is being open to what is “outside our experience or system of knowledge” (paragraph 4). Thus, an immanent practice is empirical (rather than spiritual or transcendental) and does not accept absolute dogma or fixed belief systems. The question asks you to choose a scenario that is LEAST similar to the author’s definition of an immanent practice. You should therefore look for a scenario that lacks both these qualities and thus involves both closed belief systems and transcendental views. A staunch atheist who believes in science (option 1) may or may not have a closed belief system, but does not believe in god or some higher form of enlightenment. The person who believes that a vegetarian lifestyle is the only way to serve humanity (option 2) has a closed belief system, but again does not necessarily believe in trans-empirical states of being. Voting for a political party (option 3) is a behavior that may or may not reflect any beliefs at all, let alone trans-empirical beliefs. Religious prayer (option 4) is a specific and spiritual practice with trans-empirical characteristics, and viewing it as the only method is a closed-belief system.
Option 4 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
(
[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. believes in science and self-identifies as a staunch atheist.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. views a vegetarian lifestyle as the only way to serve humanity.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. votes for the same political party regardless of the platform.
)
[3] => Array
(
[each_answer] => D. views religious prayer as the only way to cleanse the mind, body, and higher spirit.
)
)
)
[5] => Array
(
[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => Which of the following is a weakness in the author’s argument?
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 4
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question, which means that it directs your attention to an argument, claim, or theme presented in the passage, and tests your ability to analyze and evaluate the strength of evidentiary relationships among component parts of an argument.
In paragraph 4, the author writes that immanent practice “is open to what – at the present moment – is outside our experience or system of knowledge.” While the author criticizes Buddhism and pessimism as being closed belief systems with predefined principles, at the same time the author holds that immanent practice is closed to ideas of trans-empiricism. In paragraph 1 the author writes that immanent practice “is contrary to a philosophy that aims at something transcendental”, and in paragraph 2 writes that when immanent practice is seen in this light, “Buddhism is not a philosophy, in the sense that it operates with trans-empirical states of being: the divine or a God.” Thus, immanent practice does not embrace the possibility that there are truths that are unknowable or beyond empirical reach. This feature in itself makes it a closed belief system, in contradiction to the requirement that it be “open” (option 4). The whole point of paragraph 3 is to draw attention to how Buddhism and pessimism differ (option 1), and to question their assumptions (option 2).. Whether religion makes people happy (option 3) is irrelevant to the author’s argument. Happiness and suffering are discussed in how religions view these states, which is a distinct issue from any effects these views have on those states.
Option 4 is correct.
)
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(
[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. The author presumes that Buddhism and pessimism are identical.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. The author does not question the assumptions of Buddhism.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. The author does not consider whether religion makes people happy.
)
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[each_answer] => D. The author presents a definition of “Immanent Practice” that is self-contradictory.
)
)
)
)
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[560012|2] => D
[560012|3] => A
[560012|4] => B
[560012|5] => B
[560012|6] => D
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