Primordial and complex jealousy
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Primordial and complex jealousy
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[ID] => 559776
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[post_date] => 2025-01-03 12:39:37
[post_date_gmt] => 2025-01-03 17:39:37
[post_content] => Practice Passage (Question 1-6)
*This passage is the property of Khan Academy and has been reformatted into an AAMC-style interface in their entirety by MedLife Mastery. MedLife Mastery does not endorse and is not an affiliate of Khan Academy.
While the origins and possible function of jealousy have been debated, most theorists agree on one defining feature: It requires a social triangle, arising when an interloper threatens an important relationship. A common assumption has been that the elicitation of jealousy involves, and perhaps requires, complex cognitive abilities, including appraisals about the meaning of the rival threat to one's self (e.g., self-esteem) and to one's relationship.
One possibility is that jealousy first evolved in the context of sibling-parent relationships where dependent offspring compete for parental resources. An implication of this hypothesis is that jealousy may have a primordial or core form that can be triggered without complex cognition about the self or about the meaning of the social interaction. This primordial form of jealousy may be elicited by the relatively simple perception that an attachment figure or loved one's attention has been captured by a potential usurper, which suffices to elicit a motive to regain the loved one's attention and block the liaison. Primordial jealousy may serve as the building block for jealousy elicited by more complex cognitive processes. For example, in adult human relationships, the experience of jealousy is greatly impacted by additional appraisals about the meaning of the interaction (e.g., does this mean my mate will leave me? Am I unloveable?). In both primordial and complex cases of jealousy, there is a motivation to restore the relationship and remove the usurper. However, in the latter case, interpretations of the situation play a large role in the elicitation and experience of the emotion.
The theory that jealousy can take a primordial form finds support from the small but emerging body of research on human infant jealousy. Several studies found that infants as young as 6-months of age show behaviors indicative of jealousy, for example, when their mothers interacted with what appeared to be another infant (but was actually a realistic looking doll). The infants did not display the same behaviors when their mothers attend to a nonsocial item (a book).
The current experiment adapted a paradigm from human infant studies to examine jealousy in domestic dogs. The idea that dogs are capable of jealousy is congenial to the burgeoning body of research on animal social cognition that reveals that dogs have sophisticated social-cognitive abilities. For example, dogs can use a variety of human communicative signals (e.g., pointing, eye gaze) to determine the location of hidden food, are better at using social cues than chimpanzees, show some sensitivity to reward inequity when a partner is rewarded and they are not and appear aware of, and actively attempt to manipulate, the visual attention of their play partners.
To evaluate dogs' jealous behaviors, thirty-six dogs were individually tested and videotaped while their owners ignored them and interacted with a series of three different objects. In the jealousy condition, the owner treated a stuffed dog, which briefly barked and wagged its tail, as if it were a real dog (e.g., petting, talking sweetly). In another condition, owners engaged in these same behaviors but did so towards a novel object (jack-o-lantern pail). This enabled us to test whether the elicitation of jealousy required that the owner show affection to an appropriate stimulus (what appeared to be a conspecific) or whether affectionate behaviors directed to a nonsocial stimulus would be enough to arouse jealous behaviors. In the third condition, the owner read aloud a children's book, which had pop-up pages and played melodies. This condition allowed us to test whether dogs' behaviors in the other conditions were indicative of jealousy per se (arising over the loss of affection and attention towards an interloper) or more general negative affect due to the loss of the owner's attention.
As discussed earlier, the proposed function of jealousy is to break-up a potentially threatening liaison and protect the primary relationship. This motivates several types of behaviors including approach actions such as attempts to get physically or psychologically between the attachment and the interloper, attending to the threatening interaction, seeking attention from the attachment figure, as well as indicators of negative emotion such as aggression, particularly toward the interloper. Across social species, we would expect to see similar types of behaviors that serve the function of this motivational state.
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[question] => In both cases of complex and primordial jealousy:
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 1
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Foundations of Comprehension” question which is asking you to recognize an accurate paraphrase or summary of the central theme or of particular statements in the passage, or to interpret word choices made by the author.
In paragraph 2, the author writes, “In both primordial and complex cases of jealousy, there is a motivation to restore the relationship and remove the usurper” (option 1). The author says that with complex jealousy “interpretations of the situation play a large role in the elicitation and experience of the emotion.” This implies that the experience differs from that of primordial jealousy (option 2). Infants are mentioned in reference to primordial, not complex jealousy in paragraph 3 (option 3). Finally, paragraph 1 and 2 make it clear that complex cognition about the self is involved only in complex jealousy (option 4).
Option 1 is correct.
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[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. here is a motivation to restore the relationship and remove the usurper.
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[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. the cognitive process is different but the resulting jealousy is the same.
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[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. infants as young as 6-months of age show behaviors indicative of both.
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[each_answer] => D. jealousy is triggered with complex cognition about the self.
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[1] => Array
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[question] => As discussed in the passage, the proposed function of jealousy is to break-up a potentially threatening liaison and protect the primary relationship. Suppose a scientist were to demonstrate that dogs exhibit aggressive behavior to establish social dominance. This information is likely to complicate the author’s experiment because:
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 4
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
If dogs behave aggressively as a display of social dominance, their aggression may have little to do with the dog owner and more to do with their sense of hierarchy (option 1). Remember that jealousy is defined in paragraph 1 as when an interloper threatens a relationship. If it’s possible that a display of aggressive behavior may not be related to the dog-owner relationship at all, it will be hard for the experimenter to determine the exact nature of the dog’s behavior, and whether that behavior is in fact a display of jealousy, or merely a show of dominance. Even if there is an element of jealousy, it might be hard to determine when a dog is feeling jealous because of the relationship with the owner, and when the dog is merely exhibiting aggressive behavior (option 2). Finally, the third option completes the reasoning of the first option, in that the dog’s aggressive behavior may be purely to establish dominance over the third interloper, rather than the result of a jealous desire to see the interloper removed in order to safeguard an exclusive relationship with the dog owner. . All three pieces of information would cause complications (option 4).
Option 4 is correct.
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[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. aggressive dog behavior may have nothing to do with the owner.
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[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. the dog’s propensity for aggression could sometimes be incorrectly interpreted as jealousy.
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[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. the dog’s behavior may merely be an attempt to establish dominance over the third interloper.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. All of the above.
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[2] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 83407773
[question] => Which of the following BEST represents an example of primordial jealousy?
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 3
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
The author describes complex jealousy as an emotion that is “greatly impacted by additional appraisals about the meaning of the interaction (e.g. does this mean my mate will leave me? Am I unloveable?)” (paragraph 2). Complex jealousy involves a more sophisticated evaluation of oneself in light of a social interaction between an “attachment figure” or loved one and a third party. Steven thinks of himself as boring in light of his date’s interaction with another man (option 1). Trish thinks of herself as less charming due to her supervisor’s interaction with her colleague Pam (option 2). Both of these options are examples of complex jealousy. In paragraph 2, the author writes that a “primordial form of jealousy may be elicited by the relatively simple perception that an attachment figure or loved one’s attention has been captured by a potential usurper, which suffices to elicit a motive to regain the loved one’s attention and block the liaison” (paragraph 2). A parent talking to someone (option 3) matches this description. Finally, getting angry for being fired (option 4) is merely a reaction to a bad piece of news. There’s no attachment figure or loved one involved in an interaction with a potential usurper.
Option 3 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. Steven worries that his date is flirting with another man because she thinks Steven is boring.
)
[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. Trish wants to see her colleague, Pam, transferred to another branch because she thinks the supervisor finds Pam more charming.
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[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. Marshall cries because his mother is busy talking to the mailman.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. Ted throws his phone against the wall because he was fired from his job.
)
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[3] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 872728905
[question] => Based on the passage, the purpose of the third condition, in which the owner reads aloud a children’s book in front of the dog, is:
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 4
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Foundations of Comprehension” question which is asking you to recognize an accurate paraphrase or summary of the central theme or of particular statements in the passage, or to interpret word choices made by the author.
Jealousy is defined in the passage as an emotion arising in a social triangle when an interloper threatens an important relationship (paragraph 1). It is repeatedly referred to as an emotion that arises in a social context, with a “potential usurper” or “liaison” (paragraph 2). This is why the experimental condition involving the pet owner interacting with another dog (albeit fake) is called the “jealousy” condition. The second condition involves giving affection to a non-social stimulus (jack-o-lantern) and the third condition involves the pet owner reading a book aloud (paragraph 5). The author specifically distinguishes between jealousy, which must involve the perception of a usurper, and a “general negative affect due to the loss of the owner’s attention” in paragraph 5. This means that the purpose of having the owner read the book has nothing to do with eliciting jealousy, and more to do with distinguishing jealousy from responses that are generally negative (option 4) regardless of whether or not there is perceived social threat. This is why option 1 is incorrect, since it uses the word “jealousy” even though reading the book should not be perceived as a social threat. The purpose of the book is not to determine whether dogs can experience complex jealousy (option 2), because the author clearly describes complex jealousy as something that adult humans experience (paragraph 2.) Finally, the author says in paragraph 5 that the jack-o-lantern, rather than the book, is used to determine whether jealousy can be elicited with a non-social stimulus (option 3).
Option 4 is correct.
)
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[each_answer] => A. to determine whether the dog experiences jealousy when the owner’s attention is diverted.
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[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. to test if the dog can experience complex jealousy.
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[each_answer] => C. to detect if the dog is capable of experiencing jealousy of non-social objects.
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[each_answer] => D. to distinguish between jealousy and generally negative behavior.
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[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => The author’s use of the “third condition” in the experiment involves the owner reading a book out loud. Which of the following potential results of that condition would be most problematic for the author’s theory.
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 3
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
The theory assumes that negative reactions in the presence of a potential usurper indicate jealousy. Thus, the prediction based on the idea that dogs experience jealousy is that the dog will not show negative behaviors in the third condition (option 1) where the owner is merely reading out loud and not directing his attention toward a potential usurper. If the dog acts positively because it interprets the owner reading as the owner talking to him/her (option 2), then this is neutral or irrelevant to the theory, because the theory is only about reactions to not getting desired attention. However, negative reactions like barking (option 3) could mean that the dog is jealous of a book which is not really a “usurper”, or that none of the negative reactions in any condition indicate jealousy. Either of those implications weakens the theory.
Option 3 is correct.
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. The dog displays no negative behaviors.
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[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. The dog wags its tail because he thinks the owner is talking to him/her.
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[each_answer] => C. The dog barks to gain the owner’s attention.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. Both B and C are equally problematic for the theory.
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[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => An assumption the author makes about the dogs in the experiment is that:
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[answer] => 2
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question. These items generally ask you to think about the author’s reasoning, such as what claim an author is trying to support with a piece of evidence, what assumption underlies a specific statement, or whether an argument is flawed.
There is nothing in the passage to suggest anything about the dogs sensing excitement, nor anything about the relationship between jealousy and perception of an owner’s excitement level (option 1). The author says that the third condition, involving the owner ignoring the dog while reading the book aloud, would be used as a behavioral benchmark to distinguish general negative behavior from jealous behavior. However, this assumes that any negative behavior exhibited by the dog when the owner is distracted by a book is not jealousy (option 2). Even though the author is open to the idea that a dog may feel jealous when the owner is distracted by a Jack-o-Lantern, this is not assumed to be true (option 3). Rather this is an idea that will be tested by the study.
Option 2 is correct.
)
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. dogs will sense when owners are more excited about the jack-o-lantern than about reading the book aloud.
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[each_answer] => B. dogs will not feel jealous when their owners are reading a book.
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[each_answer] => C. dogs will feel jealous when they see their owners giving affection to the jack 0 lanterns.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. both B and C
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