Sociology of participation
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Sociology of participation
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[post_content] => Practice Passage (Question 1-6)
*This passage is the property of Khan Academy and has been reformatted into an AAMC-style interface in their entirety by MedLife Mastery. MedLife Mastery does not endorse and is not an affiliate of Khan Academy.
Historically, sociologists have argued that what makes democracies effective is active citizen participation in civic affairs. They developed what was called a psycho-cultural approach to the study of political phenomena. According to the psycho-cultural approach, individual values and beliefs explain why some societies appeared more vibrant than others in creating associations and, consequently, why democracies differed in efficiency despite sharing similar institutions like universal suffrage, division of power, a political constitution, free elections, and so forth. Similarly and more recently, the work of sociologist Robert Putnam on Italian regional and local governments argued that regions in Northern Italy were better governed because of a longer tradition of civic associations compared to the regions in Southern Italy. Putnam explains the relationship between strong networks of citizen participation and positive institutional performance in terms of “social capital” — the informal networks, norms of reciprocity and trust that are fostered among individual members of the same association.
While the two studies cited above stress the importance of values and belief systems, several social scientists have more recently articulated a structural perspective to explain the importance of associations more broadly. From this perspective, social networks have emerged as a key factor in understanding modern associations. Within the literature that focuses on associations as networks, tension has emerged between two approaches. On the one hand, scholars have highlighted the role of social networks, and of friendship in particular, for explaining why people participate in associations. On the other hand, scholars have stressed the importance of identity processes in explaining the growth of associations. People join because the association provides them with a new identity and new circles of friends that they are interested in acquiring. With some notable exceptions, both approaches draw heavily from research on social movements.
The research of Sociologist Doug McAdam showed that activists who participated in the 1964 Mississippi summer camp were more likely to have friends already at the camp. McAdam analyzed the role of networks by studying the centrality of the people recruited to participate in the summer camp, further confirming the importance of pre-existing ties. On the other hand, sociologist Eugene Weber has articulated, on historical and institutional grounds, a view counter to the importance of pre-existing friendship ties for explaining participation. Weber describes the ways in which the French state facilitated the creation of a national identity among the locally identified members of the population by enabling contact among the soon-to-become “French'' individuals from the country's provinces. National universities, military service, corporations, and administrative bodies all facilitate the meeting of people from various parts of the state's territory. With contact comes the opportunity for the development of social relations, and the formation of such relations confirms one's loyalty to the nation. Membership in these institutions promotes new identities, which in turn influence participation.
While Weber's argument focuses on institutions rather than associations, a similar argument about the importance of identity has been advanced by another set of social movement scholars interested in processes of identity formation and collective action. Sociologist Deborah Minkoff, for instance, has argued that those in certain disadvantaged categories such as gays and lesbians, the elderly, and women, lacked access to the infrastructure that facilitates generation of ties between members. Mobilization of these groups creates identities that then produced social ties. Further reinforcing this argument and providing a more formalized approach to it, some sociologists have used data from online communities to show the existence of a non-network growth model for communities and, by extension, for associations. In this case individuals join because they share a common interest with the community. The new relationships individuals form with members of the association subsequently helped to promote a new identity.
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[questions] => Array
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[question] => What is the best summary of the way that the author characterizes the various theories of associations?
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 2
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Foundations of Comprehension” question which is asking you to recognize an accurate paraphrase or summary of the central theme or of particular statements in the passage, or to interpret word choices made by the author.
Paragraph 1 explains that one theory behind the creation of associations is the psycho-cultural approach, which holds that individual values and beliefs explain why some societies tend to have more associational activity than other societies with similar political institutions. The author then goes on to identify a second major sociological theory that emphasizes the importance of social networks in the formation and structure of associations. In paragraph 2, the author states, “Within the literature that focuses on associations as networks, tension has emerged between two approaches.” Thus, we can see that there two general theoretical approaches that are discussed. One theory emphasizes individual beliefs and values, and a second theory emphasizes social networks. Within the latter theory, there is a scholarly divide. The author never suggests that psycho-cultural theories about individual values contain a similar divide (option 1). Options 3 and 4 suggest that there are three distinct theories when the author only introduces two major approaches. Also, the author also does not limit the discussion of associations to political associations (option 4).
Option 2 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
(
[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. One theory emphasizing social networks, and another divided theory emphasizing individual values.
)
[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. One theory emphasizing individual values, and another divided theory emphasizing social networks.
)
[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. One theory emphasizing individual values, one theory emphasizing systemic beliefs, and one theory emphasizing social networks.
)
[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. Three theories all ascribing political association to collective belief systems and social ties.
)
)
)
[1] => Array
(
[quiz_unique_key] => 3873426850
[question] => Paragraph 4 includes the assertion that “gays and lesbians, the elderly, and women, lacked access to the infrastructure that facilitates generation of ties between members.” This passage uses this assertion to support which of the following?
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 3
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question, which means that it directs your attention to an argument, claim, or theme presented in the passage, and tests your ability to analyze and evaluate the strength of evidentiary relationships among component parts of an argument.
Paragraph 4 opens with the sentence, “While Weber’s argument focuses on institutions rather than associations, a similar argument about the importance of identity has been advanced by another set of social movement scholars interested in processes of identity formation and collective action.” The passage then goes into the work of sociologist Deborah Minkoff. The passage author is trying to connect the work of Weber and Minkoff while highlighting the differences between the two. Weber’s work involved government institutions, such as the military, while Minkoff’s work involved groups brought together by “certain disadvantaged categories such as gays and lesbians, the elderly, and women.” Both their work emphasized the importance of identity formation (option 3), without the need for pre-existing social ties (option 1). However, Minkoff pointed to disadvantaged groups to show that that formed identity and ties, even without access to the infrastructure of institutions (option 2). The psycho-cultural approach (option 4) does emphasize values, but that is a separate approach that is in contrast to the work discussed in the quote.
Option 3 is correct.
)
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. That pre-existing social ties create strong associations.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. That formal institutions are critical to building social ties.
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[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. That identity formation is important to the creation of social ties.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. That the psycho-cultural approach emphasized values.
)
)
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[2] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 83407773
[question] => Which of the following major assumptions does Eugene Weber make in his conclusions about pre-existing friendships and associations in paragraph 3?
[value] => Array
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[answer] => 3
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Within the Text” question, which means that it directs your attention to an argument, claim, or theme presented in the passage, and tests your ability to analyze and evaluate the strength of evidentiary relationships among component parts of an argument.
Weber’s argument is framed in the passage in paragraph 3 as an alternative to the idea that pre-existing social ties promote participation in associations. Weber argues that people join associations, such as universities, the military, and corporations, because “Membership in these institutions promotes new identities, which in turn influence participation.” Weber is assuming that the opportunity to create new ties, and participate in the creation of a new identity, is more important than pre-existing social ties (option 3). Weber does not assume that pre-existing friendships are based on values that stifle participation in associations (option 1). Weber is arguing against the idea that associations require pre-existing social networks (option 2). Finally, although Weber argues that a national identity is something that influences participation, this is a more modest claim than the extreme assumption that national identity is “essential for free political participation” (option 4).
Option 3 is correct.
)
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[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. Pre-existing friendships are based on values that stifle participation in associations.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. Governments cannot build loyalty without relying on pre-existing friendships.
)
[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. New social relations formed within associations are more important than pre-existing social relations.
)
[3] => Array
(
[each_answer] => D. Creating a national identity is essential for free political participation.
)
)
)
[3] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 872728905
[question] => The author’s attitude toward the view that pre-existing social ties promote participation in associations is one of:
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 2
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Foundations of Comprehension” question which is asking you to recognize an accurate paraphrase or summary of the central theme or of particular statements in the passage, or to interpret word choices made by the author.
In paragraph 1 the passage author first opens by describing a historical view of associations taken by some sociologists, and uses Robert Putnam’s research in Italy on “social capital” as an example. Then, in paragraph 2, the author transitions to a new academic approach in which “several social scientists have more recently articulated [as] a structural perspective.” The author continues to describe an academic rift between the pre-existing social ties perspective and the identity formation perspective in the same paragraph. The author never moves beyond describing the scholarship from a neutral perspective, and never expresses a personal opinion (option 2). Cautious support (option 1), subtle disapproval (option 3), and confused ambivalence (option 4), all require the expression of a personal opinion, which never occurs in the passage.
Option 2 is correct.
)
[answers] => Array
(
[0] => Array
(
[each_answer] => A. Cautious support.
)
[1] => Array
(
[each_answer] => B. Objective neutrality.
)
[2] => Array
(
[each_answer] => C. Subtle disapproval.
)
[3] => Array
(
[each_answer] => D. Confused ambivalence.
)
)
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[4] => Array
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[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => Suppose that, historically, one American Confederate army battalion enlisted soldiers who were from the same region, while another battalion enlisted soldiers from many regions. Which of the following predictions about desertion rates is consistent with the theory supported by the research of McAdam in paragraph 3?
I. Lower desertion and higher participation is predicted in battalions from many regions.
II. Lower desertion and higher participation is predicted in battalions from the same region.
III. Equal desertion rates in all battalions is predicted due to compulsory social ties imposed by the state.
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 1
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
This question is asking you to apply one of the theories discussed in the passage to the associational strength of battalions during the American Civil War. McAdam’s research is presented as support for the theory that “pre-existing social ties” predict the strength of association and participation. The question tells you about two different ways that battalions were created. Soldiers from the same region are more likely to have pre-existing social ties, so the theory predicts that battalion would have less desertion than a battalion with people from many regions (statement II).Statements I and III could be argued to be consistent with other theories in the passage, such as the theory that new social ties create a new identity, but not with the theory supported by McAdam’s research.
Option 1 is correct.
)
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[0] => Array
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[each_answer] => A. II only.
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[1] => Array
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[each_answer] => B. I and II.
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[2] => Array
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[each_answer] => C. I only.
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[3] => Array
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[each_answer] => D. III only.
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[quiz_unique_key] => 3143847772
[question] => Paragraph 2 discusses tension between two approaches regarding associations as networks. Which of the following, if true, would lend some support to both of these approaches? People are most likely to join associations when:
[value] => Array
(
[answer] => 3
[description] => Reason for the Correct Answer:
This is a “Reasoning Beyond the Text” question, which means that it wants you to either apply or extrapolate the ideas in the passage to new situations or to assess how new information would impact the ideas presented in the passage. It is important to understand the assumptions underlying the article, and how new information may or may not shift the central thesis.
Paragraph 2 discusses a first approach where people are drawn to join associations that their friends are already a part of. This is contrasted against a second approach where people join associations to acquire “a new identity and a new circle of friends”. If group membership is allowed only by referral by an existing member (option 1) this would mean that only people with pre-existing relationships could join, which is consistent with only with the first theory. In contrast, if people joined groups with no friends were already a part of (option 4) this would fail to support the first approach because then there would be no pre-existing social ties. If people are more likely to join groups with a few close friends (option 3), then this would be consistent with both approaches because it would suggest some importance of prior social ties but still allow the opportunity for people to form new relationships and identities. According to the second approach, beliefs and values are an aspect of identity that is developed in the course of belonging to a group, not a reason for joining groups in the first place (option 2).
Option 3 is correct.
)
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[each_answer] => A. Group membership is allowed only by referral by an existing member.
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[each_answer] => B. People in the group all share the same values and beliefs.
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[each_answer] => C. There are no more than a few close friends already in the group.
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[each_answer] => D. There is at least one acquaintance in the group but no close friends.
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[559988|3] => C
[559988|4] => B
[559988|5] => A
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